Darius II – Artaxerxes II, Persian Empire, Silver Siglos

This coin’s date attribution to 420-375 BCE encompasses the reigns of Persian kings Darius II and Artaxerxes II. From a biblical-historical perspective, this time period coincided with the closing of the long era of events contained in the Old Testament. As such, this coin hails from the very beginning of the Intertestamental Period.¹ The last Divinely inspired voice in that age was Malachi who ministered ca. 432-424 BCE.²  This time period also saw the beginning of the Persian Empire’s decline which would, in less than a half-century after this coin’s dating, segue into Hellenistic control of a great expanse of formerly Persian territory due to Alexander the Great’s invasion into and beyond the Holy Land. 

Although this coin’s inclusion of a royal figure on one-side accompanied by the exclusion of a specific design on the other side is familiar from earlier Persian coinage, some changes are evident on this type. The figure still carries a bow as a military archer, but now includes a different weapon, a dagger, which is carried in his right hand. The face takes on a somewhat crude caricature-like appearance with exaggerated features of large eyes, eyebrows, nose, and lips.  On this example a portion of the quiver over the figure’s right shoulder is discernible.³ It is not uncommon on this type for the figure to be incomplete on the flan, but the figure on this example is almost complete – lacking only the right elbow and feet. The various Type IV sub-groups are not easily distinguishable on most Type IV examples, but attribution of this example as Type IV-B (middle) is confident.⁴

Two additional items of numismatic interest are worthy of mention. First, this Carradice Type IV Persian coinage (king running with bow and dagger) was the last large series of coinage struck with just a one-side design. Even at this time coinage produced from multiple other locations were produced with two sided-designs – including some of higher artistic style.⁵  Second, Persian silver coins had been produced in vast volume over the preceding century, but their number began to recede at the beginning of the 4^th century B.C.; (this based on find evidence). It has been plausibly conjectured that this was due to a simultaneous increase in coin production by Persian satraps and local civic mints throughout the Persian Empire including the Holy Land.⁶ 

The first of two Persian kings who reigned in the time span of this coin was Darius II. He was the fourth Persian king after Darius I, and ruled ca. 423–404 BCE. His father was Artaxerxes I, the sender of both Ezra and Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem, and the king whom Nehemiah served as cupbearer. His mother was a Babylonian concubine of his father.

Darius II is remembered as a builder, primarily in Susa, but also as a near constant defender of Persia’s boundary. He had to deal with increasing Greek threat from Athens, against which he made a treaty with Sparta that combined his forces with theirs to war against the Athenians – only finding himself checked by the superior strength of Athens. He also faced several revolts against his empire from within, as well as a noteworthy coup led by Aretoxares who had been a former supporter.⁷ 

Seventy years after the death of Darius II, his grandson Darius III unsuccessfully led the Achaemenid against Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus. (For more information about Darius III see the Carradice Type IV-C siglos included in this collection.)

The second Persian king included in this coin’s chronology was Artaxerxes II, who reigned ca. 404–358 BCE. He was the eldest son of Darius II. Upon inauguration he was promptly forced to deal with a coup plot by his brother Cyrus the Younger. Only through intervention by their mother was Artaxerxes persuaded to forgive his brother. Unfortunately for Artaxerxes and the Persian Empire, Cyrus was then appointed as an official Satrap. This proved to be a bad decision as Cyrus later rebelled again, this time with an army that included thousands of Greek mercenaries. The failure to initially deal harshly against Cyrus opened an avenue that ultimately aided the ability of Alexander the Great to soundly defeat the Persian army just over a half-century later.⁸ 

Additionally, Artaxerxes’ reign saw a continued decrease in Persian power with an increased strength of the Greeks. He faced multiple revolts by Satraps within the Persian Empire, and was ultimately unable to either defend the Empire’s western front against the Greeks or successfully reconquer Egypt despite a committed attempt to do so against Pharaoh Nectanebo I.⁹

ENDNOTES

1 The term “Intertestamental Period” is used primarily among Christians to denote the approximate 400-year period between the close of the Old Testament writings/events and the beginning of the New Testament events.  However, the term has fallen out of common usage and replaced with “Second Temple Judaism”. To a large degree, the Second Temple Period, ca. 538 BCE–70 AD, as used in Jewish scholarship (though not exclusively) dovetails with the Intertestamental Period.  In this same vein the term New Testament is obviously a Christian term, although other faiths are not un-familiar with it. Similarly, the term Old Testament used by Christians would be understood by Jews as ‘Hebrew Bible’, ‘Hebrew Scriptures’, ‘Scripture’, or ‘Tanakh’ (an acronym of the first Hebrew letter of the three sections: Torah (Genesis – Deuteronomy), Nevi’im (the prophets), and Ketuvim (literally: writings).

² Conclusive agreement of an exact dating is not achievable.

Easton’s Bible Dictionary says, “It is probable that he delivered his prophecies about B.C. 420”. 

Craig A. Blaising says the Book of Malachi was written as late as around 430 BCE, on pg. 1573, Malachi article, The Bible Knowledge Commentary, Old Testament, ChariotVictor Publishing, Walvoord and Zuck editors.

“The consensus of opinion seems to point to 432-424 BCE as the time of the composition of the book. This was the time between the first and second visits of Nehemiah to Jerusalem.” Jewish Encyclopedia, Book of Malachi article, By: Isidore Singer, Adolf Guttmacher, 1906. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of

³ Interestingly, slightly later Persian sigloid would return to a less crude style with careful detail, yet still in the design of Type IV at large.

⁴ In private e-mail correspondence from Professor Ian Carradice he concurred that this example “has the style of those sigloid found in the hoards from ca. 420-375”.

⁵ For an example see the Athenian owl silver tetradrachm in this collection.  

⁶ Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins, Michael Alram article, pages 70-71.

⁷ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iv

⁸ https://www.armstrongeconomics.com/research/monetary-history-of-the-world/the-monetary-history-of-the-greek-world/persia/artaxerxes-ii-404-358-bc/

“Artaxerxes II not merely pardoned his brother Cyrus, but he also sent Cyrus back to Parysatis as satrap. In this position as governor, Cyrus amassed an army of about 100,000 Persians and 13,000 Greeks – mostly Spartans whom Cyrus had helped during the Peloponnesian War against Athens. Using a pretext of leading an expedition against bandits in Pisidia, Cyrus set out from the city of Sardis in the direction of Babylon. In 401 BC the final battle came between the armies of Artaxerxes and Cyrus at Cunaxa, near the Euphrates River. Cyrus was killed in battle and while Artaxerxes emerged as the victory, the Greeks retreated through the heart of Persian territory on their way to the Black Sea. This strategic retreat exposed the military weakness of the Persians to the Greeks and the knowledge of this weakness set in motion the ultimate path to conquest of Persia. The story of Cyrus’s revolt and of the march of the ‘Ten Thousand Greeks’ was told by the Athenian general and historian Xenophon in his Anabasis, thus laying the seeds for the dream of Philip II of Macedonia and later his son, Alexander the Great.”

⁹ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king